نویسنده: Ali Bina

  • How Much Are Yorkie Puppies? (7 Factors That Affect Price)

    How Much Are Yorkie Puppies? (7 Factors That Affect Price)


    This post may contain affiliate links. We may earn money or products from the companies mentioned in this post.

    If you are in the market for a pint-sized dog that is as cute as a button, you may be wondering, “How much are Yorkie puppies?” Not to worry, I have the answer!

    Yorkshire terriers are fun-loving dogs that enjoy the company of their owners and do not need a very large home to live in as long as they get enough exercise (only about 20 minutes a day).

    They are suited to large or small families and are great with slightly older children.

    Yorkies are very expensive and cost between $800 and $3,000 dollars! If you want a Yorkie puppy that comes from impeccable championship breeding, then you could pay as much as $10,000!

    How Much Do Yorkie Puppies Cost? - Yorkie puppy licking babies face.

    There are a number of factors that can affect the price of a Yorkie puppy.

    I will discuss each of these factors and how they affect the price and the overall health of the dog below. Read on to find out what other costs you can expect when buying a Yorkie puppy, too.

    My in-laws love Yorkshire Terriers and Silky Terriers. They’ve been on the lookout for a Yorkie and their price range is between $800 – $1,000. This is on the low end nowadays with the pandemic and inflation boosting the price of well-bred puppies.

    What Is A Yorkshire Terrier?

    The adorable, silky-haired, delicate little Yorkshire terriers of today were originally bred for their small size and high prey drive to be ratters on the mines and textile mills in northern England in the 1800s!

    These little dogs, although lovely to look at, were originally bred for their feisty natures to delve into the dark corners of coal mines and mills to exterminate pesky rodents.

    According to legend, they developed their long, silky hair because they worked in the textile mills.

    Later on, owing to their stunning coats and petite nature, they became the fashionable lap dog of well-to-do Victorian ladies.

    Over the years, they have retained their reputation as a dog of status and are one of the most desired breeds in the champion market.

    According to the Yorkshire Terrier Club of America, “The dog’s high head carriage and confident manner should give the appearance of vigor and self-importance.” This should tell you something about their inherited reputation!

    Yorkies are small in size with a proportioned body and have a snout that protrudes slightly, which means they do not suffer the same issues other small breeds do that have flat faces. They live for 12 to 16 years on average.

    Their color is typically a combination of blue and tan or black and tan. There are also variations that can be all black or include large white patches. However, these variants are not considered ‘standard’ according to the AKC breed guidelines.

    What Factors Affect The Price Of A Yorkie Puppy?

    Yuki the Yorkie - Our little house guest
    Yuki the Yorkie – Our little house guest

    The price of a Yorkie puppy can vary significantly from around $800 to $3,000 depending on a wide range of factors. In total, there are about seven main factors that affect the dog’s price the most, which I’ll go over in detail below.

    1. The Reputation Of The Breeder

    Breeders of Yorkshire terriers need to be registered with an authority on the breed. They can be registered with the American Kennel Club or the Yorkshire Terrier Club of America to be truly trustworthy.

    It is important to do your research on the breeder you are getting your puppy from, as some ‘official-looking’ breeders are actually puppy mills.

    To find a reputable breeder in or near your state, have a look at the list of breeders on The Yorkshire Terrier Club of America’s breeder registry.

    Breeders can up their prices when they are considered top-class breeders who have championship dogs.

    It is a good idea to contact a number of breeders before purchasing your Yorkie puppy to see which price suits you best considering the puppies they have on offer.

    If you do not want to go the route of a breeder or the price is too high but you still desperately want a Yorkie, then consider adoption!

    Reputable shelters and adoption agencies will ensure the dog is in good health before allowing you to adopt them. An adopted Yorkie usually goes for $100 to $800.

    If you decide to look for a shelter or rescue Yorkie here’s a little more information based on our experience.

    We’ve seen some reputable shelters have “free” adoption” days for their dogs.

    However, the adoption fee is usually a small amount compared to what you’ll have to spend during the lifetime of your dog. So, please beware of all the potential expenses of owning a dog.

    We adopted Linus (an Aussie mix) from the Carson Animal Shelter over 17 years ago and his adoption fee was only $37.

    I just checked the prices at our local Animal Shelter and they are still very reasonable at $50 for dogs ($30 if in the animal care center for more than 10 days).

    Of course, it’s not guaranteed that you’ll be able to find a Yorkie at your local shelter. Be patient and check in on a site like PetFinder.com frequently.

    2. The Yorkie’s Documentation

    Every Yorkie puppy that comes from a reputable breeder should come with documentation.

    Documentation ensures your puppy is purebred, it does not come from a puppy mill, and it has been screened for genetic issues that Yorkshire terriers are prone to.

    The documentation costs money to procure, so this will up the price of your puppy.

    Yorkies who are going to be entered into competitions need documentation proving their lineage to ensure that they are 100% Yorkshire terriers with no other crossbreeding having taken place.

    Documentation includes information about the dog’s lineage, their siblings, their parents, the kennel number, the breeder’s information, and what characteristics they are likely to inherit, which will tell you what your puppy will look like as an adult.

    However, if the documentation is not important to you, then you can find a breeder where the documentation is optional. If you opt to not get the documentation at birth but may want it later, then keep in contact with your breeder.

    A final word on documentation: it is always better to get a Yorkie puppy with papers, even though it is more expensive because there is a reduced risk of genetic health problems arising as they get older.

    3. The Yorkie’s Bloodline

    Your Yorkie puppy’s bloodline will greatly affect its price.

    If your Yorkshire terrier comes from a line of championship show dogs or from stud breeding, then it can cost you up to $10,000 for a single puppy!

    Having a puppy with a proven and recorded bloodline will help you determine what your puppy will look like as an adult and what kind of genetic or health issues they may have if they have any.

    As Yorkies are so intensively bred, they are very susceptible to genetic and health issues such as slipping joints, collapsing spines, and knee cap issues, which are very painful to experience and not much can be done about them because Yorkies, as a breed, do not react well to anesthetic.

    If Yorkies are back-bred with their parents or other relatives with genetic issues, then those issues become concentrated in the bloodline, resulting in puppies with guaranteed issues.

    The bloodline of the puppy you are buying should be made available to you from the breeder and will be documented in their papers.

    4. The Yorkie’s Health

    If a Yorkshire terrier has proven genetic or health issues, then their price will drop quite sharply by several hundred dollars.

    If you are purchasing a Yorkie with known health issues, then you will probably have to agree with the breeder to have them sterilized so they cannot be bred in the future either intentionally by you or accidentally by the neighborhood rascal!

    Yorkies are prone to health issues, so a puppy or dog with no known health issues will be more expensive than a dog with known health issues. However, Yorkies with no health issues in their lineage will fetch the highest price of all.

    5. The Yorkie’s Age

    As Yorkies are so small, they should not leave their mother and the breeder before they are 12 to 14 weeks old. Their bodies take a little longer than other puppies to fully form and become robust enough to leave their mother’s care.

    Yorkie puppies who are 12 to 14 weeks old will cost the most, as they are very young and will bond more immediately with a new owner. It is also easier to start training them at this age.

    The older the Yorkie is, the less they will cost. Adult Yorkies are the least expensive, relative to all of the other factors that contribute to the full cost of a Yorkshire terrier.

    6. The Yorkie’s Size

    The standard Yorkie puppy is between four and seven pounds of pure love and fun. However, Teacup or Pocket Yorkies are specifically bred to be much smaller than standard. This process of breeding them smaller takes the breeder a long time.

    Teacup Yorkie puppies are very fashionable and, therefore, they come at a higher price. To find out if a Teacup Yorkie is the right investment of time, love, and money for you, read my article dedicated to these tiny balls of fur and puppy love!

    Teacup Yorkies will cost you a lot upfront and will continue to cost you throughout their shortened lifespan of eight to 10 years. This is because they suffer from a huge number of genetic issues that are bred into them along with their small stature.

    7. The Yorkie’s Standard Appearance

    According to the American Kennel Club, a Yorkie must fit a certain description to be considered part of the registered breed.

    Their heads, bodies, and legs all have to be of a certain shape or size. Along with their proportions, they need to fit certain coloring standards.

    A mixture of blue and tan or black and tan with a small white spot on the chest are the only acceptable coloration combinations.

    A Yorkie that does not fit the AKC standard will often be sold at a cheaper price because they are seen as ‘less desirable’ than the perfect picture of a Yorkshire terrier.

    However, on the other hand, Yorkies are sometimes bred to have ‘designer’ coats that have red or more tan or white in them, and these ‘designer’ Yorkies will be priced much higher than the standard coloring.

    Other Costs You Need To Consider…

    There are still plenty of other costs you need to consider when purchasing a Yorkie puppy.

    For example, there are the start-up costs of bringing home a dog for the first time, the monthly costs of their upkeep, the yearly vet checkups, and any unseen emergencies.

    Bring Home Costs

    You will need to set up your home with the normal essentials for caring for a dog, such as

    • Puppy Toys – This is one of our favorite toys for puppies that helps them sleep better during their first few nights at home.
    • Food & Water Bowls – We prefer simple stainless steel bowls, especially when you first get a puppy.
    • Dog Food – We’ve fed Wellness Core to our puppies for a long time but we also feed other premium brands as well
    • Crate – We’ve been using Midwest wire dog crates for over 17 years.
    • Blankets – any plush blanket will do.
    • Brushes – You might want to invest in several different brushes for your Yorkie. This one is a slicker brush that should work well with your puppy’s long coat.
    • Puppy Pee Pads – if you’re pee pad training your Yorkie then be sure to stock up on these babies.

    This will ensure your new dog is as comfortable and happy as possible from the start in their new home.

    ***For a list of everything we think you need for your new puppy, check out our new puppy checklist.

    Monthly Recurring Costs

    As a monthly cost, you will need to consider the price of food for your Yorkie. Luckily, Yorkies are very small and only need half a cup of food a day, meaning food is fairly inexpensive for them in the long run!

    Additionally, Yorkies have beautiful long coats. Unfortunately, they grow quite rapidly, and your Yorkie will need to go to the groomers every four to eight weeks depending on how quickly their hair grows for a good trim.

    Yearly Recurring Costs

    The safe thing to do with Yorkies is to take them for yearly checkups and vaccinations with their vet. Seeing a vet at least once a year will ensure you and your vet are able to manage and treat any of your dog’s health issues that may arise over time.

    It is important to do this with Yorkies because they do not handle surgery well, and if they develop a health problem, it is best to start treating it as early as possible instead of waiting for surgery.

    Unseen Costs

    Accidents happen, and Yorkies are very small and fragile if not handled correctly or if they fall from heights.

    You will need to consider the unseen cost of emergency vet visits for any procedures. If possible, have an emergency vet fund on hand to pull from if your dog needs emergency treatment.

    My in-law’s last Yorkie puppy, Yuki ran into many costly vet visits. As a puppy, she had surgery for a liver shunt. As an adult, she tore ligaments in both of her knees. In total, these bills were well over $10,000.

    If you get a puppy you may want to consider pet insurance. When we got our most recent puppy, Elsa we immediately signed her up for pet insurance just in case we had to make any unforeseen vet visits.

    FAQs About The Real Cost Of Yorkshire Terrier Puppies

    I keep hearing about puppy mills. What are they?

    Puppy mills are terrible places. They are also known as backyard breeders. These breeders prioritize profit over their dogs’ well-being, resulting in unhealthy and unhappy dogs.

    To find out more about puppy mills, read my article on how to spot and avoid them.

    I want a puppy that looks kind of like a Yorkie, but breed purity isn’t so important to me. What should I get?

    There are many cross-breeds of Yorkshire terriers and other breeds of dogs that produce the adorable teddy bear-like face of a Yorkie in a slightly different package.

    Morkies, for example, are crosses between a Yorkie and a Maltese. Morkies are slightly more robust than purebred Yorkies and come in a larger range of colors.

    Rolling Over On The Cost Of Yorkie Puppies…

    Many different factors can affect how much Yorkie puppies cost. When considering the price of the Yorkie you plan on adopting, you will need to also think about:

    1. Who their breeder is 
    2. Whether the dog has documentation or not 
    3. How big they are 
    4. What they look like (coat color, body type, etc.)
    5. If they have health issues 
    6. Their lineage
    7. And their age.

    To recap, let’s have a look at these factors and how they might affect the price of your Yorkie puppy:

    Factor Affecting Price Lower Price Range Middle Price Range Higher Price Range
    1. Reputation Of The Breeder Unknown/Rescue center Well known Championship Breeder
    2. The Yorkie’s Documentation No papers Papers Papers
    3. The Yorkie’s Bloodline Unknown Well-documented Championship lineage
    4. The Yorkie’s Health Known health problems No known health problems No health problems in lineage
    5. The Yorkie’s Age Adult Young Puppy
    6. The Yorkie’s Size Standard Standard Teacup
    7. The Yorkie’s Standard Appearance Unfavorable deviations from the standard Standard Standard or designer deviations

    Do you have a Yorkie?

    If so, what did you pay for your Yorkshire Terrier?

    We’d love to hear about your experiences in the comment section below.

    Save To Pinterest

    How Much Do Yorkie Puppies Cost? - Yorkie puppy licking babies face.

    UPDATE: This post was originally published on August 21st, 2022. We periodically update blog posts with new experiences and information to keep them as relevant as possible.

    Top Picks For Our Puppies

    1. BEST DOG CHEW
      We Like: Beef Collagen Sticks – All of our pups love to bite, nip, and chew. We love using Collagen Sticks to help divert these unwanted behaviors.
    2. BEST PUPPY TOY
      We Like: Calmeroos Puppy Toy w/ Heartbeat and Heat Packs – Perfect for new puppies. Helps ease anxiety in their new home.
    3. BEST DOG TREATS
      We Like: Crazy Dog Train-Me Treats – We use these as our high-value treats for our guide dog puppies.
    4. BEST FRESH DOG FOOD
      We Like: The Farmer’s Dog – A couple months ago we started feeding Raven fresh dog food and she loves it! Get 50% off your first order of The Farmer’s Dog.

    Check out more of our favorites on our New Puppy Checklist.



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  • Homeward Pet | Monkey – A Success Story

    Homeward Pet | Monkey – A Success Story


    Monkey – A Success Story

    as written by Jim Keller, Operations Director

    Monkey arrived at Homeward Pet with 5 other kittens in early October of last year. A sweet, little 3-month-old tuxedo, Monkey had the most perfect markings you’ve ever seen. And the sweetest temperament to match.

    Monkey received his complete health exam on the day he we took him in, and everything looked great. He was cleared for adoption and made available the same day. And, no surprise, he was adopted just a few days later.

    An unfortunate surprise came after just 2 months in his new home.

    Monkey suffered a seizure that landed him at the emergency vet. Then, other symptoms appeared. He became a little wobbly on his feet, he was low-energy, he appeared sickly. He was not the bold, athletic, happy kitten they’d adopted. A follow-up visit to his regular vet brought the bad news: Monkey had contracted Feline Infectious Peritonitis (FiP).

    A few years ago, this diagnosis would have been a death sentence. There was no treatment for FiP. However, in the last few years, a treatment has been developed. Last year, a pharmacy in New Jersey began compounding the medication. The problem: the treatment is very expensive, and Monkey’s family was not able to afford it. They’d already fallen in love with little Monkey and could commit to palliative care, but not to the treatment.

    Wanting to leave no stone unturned, they contacted Homeward Pet. With our Adopter Support and Pet Retention programs working together, a life-saving plan was put into place. Monkey would be surrendered to Homeward Pet for the initial treatment. He’d be placed in the home of an experienced foster family (who’d already had success treating a cat for FiP), and Homeward Pet would take full responsibility for the cost of care, including medication and retesting.

    And, once Monkey was on the road to recovery, he’d be returned to the adopting family that loved him so dearly.

    Treating FiP requires twice-daily medication for 12 weeks! By the end of week 1, Monkey was already showing signs of improvement. Less wobbly. More active. By week 3, he was running the hallway with the resident cats (FiP is not contagious). By week 5, he owned the place – spending his days playing and sleeping in the company of 4 young cats and a Pug.

    At week 6, a recheck of his blood work showed that his health had improved immensely. We were able to gift his adopter with the call they’d been waiting for – Monkey could return home to finish his treatment. Our staff was there to witness the happy reunion between an adopter and the kitten he considered his soul mate.

    Homeward Pet is proud to be more than just a shelter. Every pet that comes through our doors receives compassionate care and a second chance at a happy, healthy life. But we don’t stop there. We stand by our adopters, providing resources and support after adoption to help keep pets and families together. From life-saving medical treatments to foster care and pet retention programs, we go the extra mile to ensure no pet is left behind.

    These sorts of interventions are not free. They cost. And sometimes they cost a lot! We cannot help these animals without you.

    Please make a donation today to help us say yes to the requests for help that come in every single day.



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  • AVMA Recommends Wellness Visits and Keeping Your Pets Safe

    AVMA Recommends Wellness Visits and Keeping Your Pets Safe


    With spring in full bloom, the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) is reminding pet owners that warmer weather and outdoor activities come with seasonal risks for pets. From toxic plants to parasites, springtime can pose a variety of dangers—but with a little preparation, pet owners can keep their animals healthy and safe all season long.

    Dr. Sandra Faeh, 2024-2025 AVMA President

    “Spring is a great time to get outside and enjoy the fresh air with our pets,” said Dr. Sandra Faeh, president of the AVMA. “But as flowers bloom and temperatures rise, we also see an increase in pet exposures to harmful plants, lawn and garden products, and parasites like fleas, ticks and mosquitoes. Taking some simple precautions now can help prevent emergency trips to the veterinarian later.”

    Common springtime threats

    Spring hazards can be found both inside and outside the home. Examples include:

    • Plants and flowers: Many popular spring plants, such as lilies, tulips, oleander, and sago palms are toxic to pets if ingested. Certain lilies, in particular, can be highly toxic and fatal for cats even in small amounts.
    • Lawn and garden products: Fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides may help your yard thrive, but they can be highly toxic to pets. Always store these products safely and follow manufacturer directions carefully when applying them.
    • Allergies: Just like humans, pets can suffer from seasonal allergies. If your pet is scratching more than usual or showing signs of skin or ear infections, talk to your veterinarian.
    • Parasites: Rising temperatures mean an increase in the number of fleas, ticks, and mosquitoes in the environment, which can transmit serious diseases to pets, including heartworm, mange and Lyme disease. Make sure your pet is on year-round preventive medication and talk to your veterinarian about specific parasitic threats in your area.
    • Spring cleaning: Household cleaners, even those labeled “natural,” can pose serious threats to pets. When cleaning, keep pets away from freshly treated surfaces until they’re dry, and store all products in a safe and secure location inaccessible to your pets. In addition, spring cleaning often leads to open windows and doors, making it easier for curious pets to escape. The AVMA recommends ensuring your pets are microchipped and that their registration information is current. Proper ID tags on collars are also crucial for a quick reunion if a pet gets lost.

    While spring offers a great opportunity to spend quality time with your pet, awareness and proactive care are key.

    “Veterinarians are your best resource for helping you protect your pets from seasonal risks,” Dr. Faeh said. “We encourage pet owners to schedule wellness visits, stay current on vaccines and parasite prevention, and reach out to your veterinarian with any questions or concerns.”

    To learn more about common household hazards for pets, visit the AVMA website [https://www.avma.org/resources-tools/pet-owners/petcare/household-hazards].

    Source: AVMA



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  • Evidence Suggests Dogs Prefer Free Food to Contrafreeloading

    Evidence Suggests Dogs Prefer Free Food to Contrafreeloading


    A hound dog mix looks quizzically at the camera while sitting with her front feet in a snuffle mat, a food enrichment toy

    There is no experimental evidence to support the claim that dogs prefer to work for their food. In fact, there is evidence that they don’t.

    Contrafreeloading is the behavior shown when an animal prefers to work for food (“earned food”) rather than take identical food that is freely available from another, nearby source (“free food”). — Inglis, 2022

    A recent study found that statistically, the group of dogs they tested did not prefer contrafreeloading. They were willing to do it. I’ll discuss the results of the study below, including their definitions of “prefer” and “willing.”

    But it’s just as important to learn about contrafreeloading findings in general. Studies on contrafreeloading have been done with many species. The studies have had large variability in results (Lentz & Cohen, 1980). Contrafreeloading is far from a universal preference; it appears more to be situational. And the many studies have yielded patterns that can inform us of situations in which this interesting phenomenon is more or less likely to happen.

    A maned wolf, which resembles a large, tall fox, walks on grass
    Maned wolves have been observed to contrafreeload

    Highlights of the Research

    The seminal Jensen study (1963) is often cited to support contrafreeloading generally, including in dogs. In that study, rats preferred to press a bar to get food rather than eat it out of a dish. What many people miss are the full results of the study and the experimental follow-ups. Jensen’s rats contrafreeloaded in proportion to their reinforcement history with bar pressing—they worked for food more when they had built a habit. In 1972, Taylor performed an experiment similar to Jensen’s, but the rats in his study showed a strong preference for the free food, and an even stronger preference for free water. Taylor had more preference tests after the initial bar pressing training (Jensen had only one preference test), and contrafreeloading decreased over those sessions as time passed from the initial training. Lentz and Cohen (1980) worked with pigeons to investigate whether previous training with the contrafreeloading method of obtaining food had an effect. They also found that response rates in the presence of free food increased as a function of previous training.

    “The data suggest that amount of training affects contrafreeloading and that this variable may be partly responsible for the large variability in responding observed among studies examining responding in the presence of free food.” — Lentz & Cohen, 1980, p. 48

    The research continued, and scientists discovered many other factors that could influence whether animals chose to contrafreeload. A review paper in 1997 (Inglis et al.) compiled from previous studies seven items that could increase or decrease contrafreeloading . They used them to create a fuzzy logic model of contrafreeloading. Here are the seven items they considered. Supporting references for each of these are in the Inglis paper.

    • Prior training. A reinforcement history with the method of accessing the food increases contrafreeloading.
    • Deprivation level. This has both increased and decreased contrafreeloading in studies, depending on other variables.
    • Effort required. The larger the effort needed to access the food, the less likely animals are to contrafreeload.
    • Stimulus change. A change in the environment that correlates with the presentation of the earned food increases contrafreeloading. This might be a light or a sound. (Hmm, clicker training, anyone?)
    • Environmental uncertainty. Novelty, ambiguity, and surprisingness increase contrafreeloading. For instance, animals are more likely to contrafreeload if that food source appears at an unpredictable location.
    • Rearing conditions. Being reared under conditions of sensory deprivation increases contrafreeloading.
    • Manipulation of the environment. Being able to control the environment may be a factor that increases contrafreeloading.
    A red junglefowl, which looks like a domestic rooster, walks among lush greenery
    Red junglefowl, the primary precursor species to the domestic chicken, contrafreeload more than chickens (Lindqvist et al, 2002)

    The list above comprises factors that can affect whether animals contrafreeload in different situations. But they do not explain why. One well-supported hypothesis is that the food itself is not the only reinforcer for food seeking behavior and eating. This “information hypothesis” notes that animals gain information about their environment when they contrafreeload. Such information could be helpful when seeking food in the future. This hypothesis has been borne out in studies.

    An earlier review (Osborne, 1977) looked at contrafreeloading experiments through a behavior analysis lens and analyzed the reinforcement schedules identified in the studies. Osborne was apparently the first to note the effects of “stimulus change,” one factor listed above. After reviewing the research up to that point, Osborne states, ” . . . when the consequences of responding for food or obtaining it freely are made equally reinforcing (e.g., by equating stimulus change conditions for both alternatives), animals show a near exclusive preference for obtaining their food freely.”

    Scientists have noted one other trend that supports the information hypothesis: domestic species tend to contrafreeload less. This is thought to be because their needs are taken care of by humans, and they don’t have a pressing need to seek information as wild animals do.

    The Dog Study

    The study of contrafreeloading in dogs (Rothkoff et al., 2024) is freely available online and very readable. Since the results were that dogs were “willing” to contrafreeload but didn’t “prefer” it, it’s important to learn how the scientists defined these terms.

    Here’s how the experiment was set up. There were four “acclimation” sessions where the dogs gained experience with eating from a snuffle mat and became familiar with a setup of a snuffle mat and a tray of “free” food. After the acclimation sessions, there were 10 experimental sessions. In these sessions, half of the dogs’ meal was in the snuffle mat, and half in the tray of food. All acclimation and experimental sessions were video recorded.

    A preference for contrafreeloading was determined by measuring how often the dog went to the snuffle mat first. A willingness to contrafreeload was determined by measuring how often the dog approached and interacted with the snuffle mat before finishing the food in the tray.

    Results under these definitions were:

    Preference. Only one of 38 dogs preferred to contrafreeload, going first to the snuffle mat 80% of the time. Twenty-two dogs went first to the tray for a large majority of the time, and fifteen dogs did not show a strong preference.

    Willingness. Thirty of 38 dogs were “willing” to contrafreeload. Eight were not willing.

    We can consider the characteristics of snuffle mats in view of Inglis et al.’s seven factors affecting contrafreeloading. Compared to many food-based enrichment toys for dogs, snuffle mats are low effort. They do not require the skill of puzzle feeders or frozen Kongs. I find it interesting that even with a comparatively easy “earned food” opportunity, most dogs preferred the free food. But mats also lack a stimulus change—there is no bell or click when the dog grabs a piece of food from the mat. That absence could make contrafreeloading less reinforcing.

    There are two other interesting findings in the study: dogs’ activity level did not correlate with a preference for free food or contrafreeloading, but dogs with higher body condition scores (more overweight) were more likely to contrafreeload.

    Finally, there is a thoughtful listing of the limitations of the study at the end of the writeup.

    Enrichment

    Where does this leave us with enrichment? In dozens of online articles on enrichment for dogs, you will see contrafreeloading referenced. You will see such absolute and non-evidence-based statements as:

    • Dogs have a behavioral drive to earn their keep
    • All dogs are contrafreeloaders
    • Dogs will work for their food while passing up the same food for free
    • Dogs would rather work for their food than not

    The message is sometimes more nuanced, especially in the last couple of years. But you can still find plenty of articles that present contrafreeloading as an unquestioned attribute of dogs. Moreover, contrafreeloading is presented as a justification for enrichment activities that involve dogs working for food.

    A human holds a pole with a rope attached to one end. A tan dog is stretched out chasing a toy tied to the end of the rope.
    There are many enriching activities that don’t involve food toys

    How this information about dogs and contrafreeloading might affect our enrichment choices is beyond the scope of this post. But here are some resources.

    I have written about assessing whether a dog really enjoys a food toy, rather than assuming they do because they are “supposed to.”

    Linda Case at The Science Dog has a comprehensive blog post about studies that assess whether food toys have beneficial qualities for dogs.

    And here are three studies that might inform our choices about enrichment. The Breakfast Effect study (Miller & Bender, 2012) showed evidence that dogs, just like people, probably learn better when their stomachs are not empty. The Eureka Effect study (McGowan et al., 2014) provided evidence that solving problems can make dogs feel good. Finally, a fascinating paper in 2024 (Veissier et al.) suggested that opportunities for animals to gain information should be central to designing enrichment activities. This paper has a wealth of information that can help us think about enrichment in new ways.

    A Personal Note

    I use food toys. This study and the rest of the contrafreeloading research do not discourage me from offering them in moderation. Here are some things I do and don’t do with food toys.

    • I do use food toys with dogs with cognitive dysfunction (easy ones).
    • I do look for toys and activities where the dog’s enthusiasm seems much greater than the value of the food involved, as in searching games.
    • I do use food toys with easy-to-access, high-value food for delay counterconditioning or just to sweeten difficult situations.
    • I do help my dogs with those last stubborn pieces at the end if they ask me to.
    • I don’t give a dog a challenging food toy on an empty stomach, nor do I train in that situation.
    • I don’t ask a dog to work for food when they are sick or have a low appetite.
    • I don’t ask a dog to work for food in a way that stresses them out. For instance, treat scatters can stress some intense resource guarders. Similarly, I don’t do food chase games with dogs who gulp it frantically.
    • I don’t ask a dog to interact with a toy they find un-fun. Lewis has told me he finds Kongs, especially frozen ones, pretty “meh.” I give him Westpaw toys instead.

    The research with dogs is only one study, with identified limitations. More research needs to be done. But with the power of the rest of the research behind it, the study is compelling. Scientists have been studying the “when” and the “why” of contrafreeloading for decades. It’s time for us to consider those findings in the dog training world.

    Copyright 2025 Eileen Anderson

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    References

    • Inglis, I. R., Forkman, B., & Lazarus, J. (1997). Free food or earned food? A review and fuzzy model of contrafreeloading. Animal behaviour53(6), 1171-1191.
    • Inglis, I. R. (2022). Contrafreeloading. In Encyclopedia of Animal Cognition and Behavior (pp. 1665-1670). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
    • Jensen, G. D. (1963). Preference for bar pressing over “freeloading” as a function of number of rewarded presses. Journal of Experimental Psychology65(5), 451.
    • Lentz, B. E., & Cohen, S. L. (1980). The effect of prior training on the contrafreeloading phenomenon. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society15(1), 48-50.
    • Lindqvist, C., Schütz, K., & Jensen, P. (2002). Red jungle fowl have more contrafreeloading than white leghorn layers: Effect of food deprivation and consequences for information gain. Behaviour139(9), 1195-1209.
    • McGowan, R. T., Rehn, T., Norling, Y., & Keeling, L. J. (2014). Positive affect and learning: exploring the “Eureka Effect” in dogs. Animal cognition17, 577-587.
    • Miller, H. C., & Bender, C. (2012). The breakfast effect: Dogs (Canis familiaris) search more accurately when they are less hungry. Behavioural processes91(3), 313-317.
    • Osborne, S. R. (1977). The free food (contrafreeloading) phenomenon: A review and analysis. Animal Learning & Behavior5(3), 221-235.
    • Rothkoff, L., Feng, L., & Byosiere, S. E. (2024). Domestic pet dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) do not show a preference to contrafreeload, but are willing. Scientific Reports14(1), 1314.
    • Taylor, G. T. (1972). A limitation of the contrafreeloading phenomenon. Psychonomic Science29(3), 173-174.
    • Veissier, I., Lesimple, C., Brunet, V., Aubé, L., & Botreau, R. (2024). Rethinking environmental enrichment as providing opportunities to acquire information. animal, 101251.

    Copyright 2025 Eileen Anderson

    Image Credits

    • Maned wolf from Wikimedia Commons, user Jonathan Wilkins , under this license.
    • Red junglefowl from Wikimedia Commons, user Charles J. Sharp , under this license. Modification: I cropped the photo.
    • Images of Zani on the snuffle mat and Clara playing with the flirt pole copyright Eileen Anderson.



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